Othello, the Moore of Venice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Othello, the Moore of Venice - Essay Example He is portrayed to be physically strong and admired by the people who know him. He is considered to be an asset for the government of Venice and he is important for the Duke as well as the other senior members. On the other hand, Roderigo is highlighted to be very weak and is dependent upon others for his decisions. He is rich but is not as strong as Othello by any means. Thus, Othello and Roderigo strike a balance in the play where Othello portrays strength and Roderigo portrays weakness. Othello is a very brave soldier and his suggestions and recommendations are given importance by the senators and the Duke of Venice. He is a man who is loved for his strength and determination. He holds the strong position of the general of the armies of Venice and has authority to promote people. Othello marries the woman he loves, Desdemona secretly. He explains that Desdemona chose to marry him after listening to the story of his achievements and attainments in his life. It is seen that Desdemona loves Othello for what he is and she chooses to stand by him. The accomplishments of Othello are so impressive that when the Duke listens to the story of Othello that he told Desdemona, he is compelled to say, â€Å"I think this tale would win my daughter too.† Thus, the life of Othello displays strength and his character is the most noticeable character of the play. Roderigo is a rich man who lives in Venice. He is a weak man who does not have his own decisions and judgments. He rather relies on deceitful people like Iago for support and help. Roderigo loves Desdemona but does not approach her through the right means. He rather pays Iago to assist him in marrying her. This can be seen as a step that displays his weakness. He cannot express his love for Desdemona by himself and win her love by his qualities. He is disappointed when he learns of the marriage between Othello and Desdemona. Despite of their marriage, he

Islam and the Challenge of Democracy Essay Example for Free

Islam and the Challenge of Democracy Essay Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl is the most prolific of the Islamic thinkers of today’s world. He is a great Islamic jurist and scholar, and is now a Professor of Law at the UCLA School of Law giving the students knowledge of Islamic law, Immigration, Human Rights, International and National Security Law. His Islam and the Challenge to Democracy is the quest to find out numerous questions and varied answers in establishing the relation between the principles so enshrined in Democracy and Islamic political and religious tenants. To propound the relationship between the Islam and democracy is not a straightforward as it involves the deep and thorough understanding of the religious and political structures of the Islamic world and Democracy in its entity. Dr Khaled says that issue of democracy in the Islamic world of today is being hotly debated and there are both pro and anti versions to this issue that compete with each other and the biggest challenge before the advocators is to promote the vision of social justice and faith. The very first section only of his most profile book Islam and the Challenge of Democracy straight forwardly says that he does not believe as what other Muslim advocators say that Islam has given birth to Democracy but various elements of Democracy are very well present in the Islam and we can say that Islam too supports Democracy. In this endeavor, he defied the view of radical Islamists as well as hardened Islamophobes who say that as God is sovereign master of whole Universe, therefore the principles of Democracy do not hold true for the Islamic world. El Fadl poises that there is no doubt of the fact that the God is the sovereign power in the Universe yet this is God who has bestowed upon the humans, the power to envisage the right to form rules to govern themselves in the form of deputies or khulafa. In-fact Islam also believes in a form of government, that gives power to the people, transparency in the decision making through shura’ and there is a toleration for any disagreements and disputes arising out of any rule and rules are accountable to his subjects for any actions. El Fadl believes in the formulation of the basic ethical values, and rights for all human beings on this Earth. He focuses that Islam should formulate the laws through ijtihad on which shari‘ah doesn’t have anything to say. He emphasized on the importance of formulating the maslaha or the ‘public good’ and ahkam al-shari‘ah or ‘expediency laws’ to envisage new thought process to develop the understanding of giving equal rights to every one. He admits that any interpretation of Islamic tenets, which has been construed by Islamic religious heads or Islamic religious leaders cannot be held as mere will of the divine power or God. He vehemently opposes the formation of the Islamic state that has all the rights to form the Shari’ah, because he is fully aware of the fact that no human being can interpret the will of the God or divine power. If this is done, it will lead to misunderstanding or very limited understanding of the link or relation between the Islam and will of God and this in turn would mean trying to become equal to God and that’s the biggest sin. This will further lead to authoritative and oppressive state. He said that although Muslim jurists defined and formulated number of political systems, yet there is nothing specific mentioned in Qur’an about any form that Government wishes to take. But Qur’an does recognize social and political values which form the basis in an arena of Muslim politics. Three values that are so enshrined in the Islamic testament: â€Å"Are: pursuing justice through social cooperation and mutual assistance (Qur’an 49:13; 11:119); establishing a non-autocratic, consultative method of governance; and institutionalizing mercy and compassion in social interactions (6:12, 54; 21:107; 27:77; 29:51; 45. 20)†. (El Fadl, Democracy and Divine Sovereignty, 2) Overall Muslims should form the government that would help in endorsing these values. As he said, â€Å"Qur’an says that God has bestowed all human beings a divine power by making them viceroys of God on this earth: He says, â€Å"Remember, when your Lord said to the angels: ‘I have to place a vicegerent on earth,’ they said: ‘Will you place one there who will create disorder and shed blood, while we intone Your litanies and sanctify Your name? ’ And God said: ‘I know what you do not know’† (2:30). (El Fadl, The Case for Democracy, 3) Institutionally it can be pointed out that the ulama, or Jurists can act as interpreters of the words of God and define what is moral and what acts are immoral for the humans. Every word of them is the voice of the God. But the law of the state demands that no religion can be imposed on the working of the state because laws of the state have been formulated by the humans according to their own whims and state itself. And therefore in his own words, â€Å"Democracy is an appropriate system for Islam because it both expresses the special worth of human beings—the status of vicegerency—and at the same time deprives the state of any pretense of divinity by locating ultimate authority in the hands of the people rather than the ‘ulama†. (El Fadl, Shari‘ah and the Democratic State, 20) Finally he says that educators try to enthuse in the soul of the people the moral values of Qu’ran and induce the society to turn towards will of God. But in this world of today, if a person is morally strong but cannot imbibe by full majesty of God but still believes in the fundamental rights of individuals, still have to be answerable to the will of God. It’s not just the mirage of the El Fadl’s views but also the vision of the several scholars on the most crucial and complex subject, Islam and the Challenge of Democracy. The second section of the book consists of short responses to El Fadl’s essay by several scholars. Nader A. Hashemi says that the most prominent aspect to El Fadl is his belief that Democracy can be possible in Islamic countries, with this he proved false, the wildly held belief that Islam is not compatible to democracy. He further said that this idea has gained immense popularity after September 11. He states that biggest challenge in front of the Islamic nations is the choice that they have to make between the modernization and fanaticism and the future of the Middle East all depends on which of them will go for a longer period. John Esposito espoused that El Fadl indicates complex and multiple manner by which Qur’an can be interpreted by the religious fundamentalists, fanatics and politicians to fulfill their various social and political motives. Jeremy Waldron appreciates El Fadl’s study of the theory of the Islamic democracy. Jeremy says that El Fadl conceptualized in the most articulate way the issue of the Islamic tradition and the way in which he poises about the politics and the rule of law in the milieu of the medieval age and how these thoughts were so prevalent in the early modern thought in the Christian era. Also, how the moral and ethical values in the context of good governance had to struggle to make its place in front of scriptural authority and theocratic rule. The most enduring thing was that these ideas not only grew out of the abased environment but also actually kept on presenting itself by religious ideas and ecclesiastical practices. Muqtedar Khan talks about the â€Å"Pact of Medina†, which was signed between the Prophet and Jews and the pagans of the town. This pact he said could be utilized to give the Islamic world the model for democracy and pluralism. In this pact, all the parties were guaranteed equal rights and equal responsibilities. Echoing El Fadl, he pinpointed that Islam should be made a symbol of ethical values and moral principles and should solve all the problems from the new outlook and new democratic perspective. But Saba Mahmood criticized Fadl on the point of liberalization. She says that very concept of liberalization is full of contradictions and the limitations that follow. She further says that he focused more on rights of individuals than on community as a whole. El Fadl also ignored the human rights violations that follow liberalization, which are most popular in the most liberalized states like United States of America. Even Kevin Reinhart revokes same voice as Saba Mahmood by saying that El Fadl ignored the vital point of what the Western nations learned from their liberalized approach in their relations with the other countries including Islamic nations. The whole liberalized approach depends on polices of Westernized nations and the military interventions of the USA in Islamic countries jeopardized whole concept of democracy and liberalization. William Quandt too said that the absence of democracy in the Islamic countries do not lie in their religion perspective but the problem lies in the presence of monarchical or dictatorial regimes in these countries, which partially or all are backed by the Western powers. In William Quandt views lie the whole thrust of the problem in the Islamic countries. The requirement is the political and structural changes in the Islamic world that would bring about social and economic upliftment from the vision of democracy, which El Fadl, all the intellectuals and scholars agree won’t be welcomed by either the ruling regime or the Western allies. All in all, Islam and the Challenge of Democracy is the most thought provoking book ready to be explored and pondered in every religious and political arena of the Islamic world. WORKS CITED El Fadl, Abou Khaled. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy: Can individual rights and popular sovereignty take root in faith? Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.

Concept of working with and leading people

Concept of working with and leading people Tesco was found in 1919 when Jack Cohen started selling surplus groceries from a stall in the East End of London. Mr Cohen made a profit out of selling  £4 was  £1 on his first day. In 1924 Mr Cohen bought a shipment of tea from a Mr T E Stockwell. Tesco was formed with the initials and letter from the name of Mr T E Stockwell and Mr Cohen. In the year of 1929 Mr Cohen opened a flagship Tesco in Burnt Oak, North London. Tesco Started to rise in 1930s when Mr Cohen built its warehouse and headquarters in North London and in 1932 Tesco became a Private Limited Company. Further on Tesco stores Ltd started to float on the stock exchange with share price of 25pence. Meaning of Recruitment, Selection and Retention: Recruitment is the process that starts from the point when an organization receives an application for the post. Recruitment may be internal or external as per the needs and requirements. The advantages of internal recruitment considered that saving can be made, as they know the business and the job very well and hence they need shorter period of training. It is like extra money to all staff to work harder within organization which is basically called Incentives, Perks and Bonus etc. External recruitment helps to pull wider range of talent and provides the opportunity to bring new experience and ideas to the business. It is very costly and expensive way of recruitment as full training needs to provide to the new recruiter. There are number of stages, which can be define and set out the nature of particular jobs for recruitment purpose. Selection then consists of the processes involved in choosing the right applicants to fill the post. Recruitment, selection and retention procedures for Tesco: For any company it is important to have right staff or people to run the business in the competitive world to be ahead. Tesco make sure that every experience of its customer are valuable and great which need to have right customer service staff. Tescos core purpose is to create value for customers to earn their lifetime loyalty. Values: Our success depends on people: the people who shop with us and the people who work with us. The way we work The way we work is how we deliver Every Little Helps to make Tesco place to shop and work in. We use simple processes so that shopping is better for customers, Simpler for staff and Cheaper for Tesco. Tesco recruitment and Selection process: Tesco is the biggest private sector employer in the UK. The company has more than 360,000 employees worldwide. In the UK, Tesco stores range from small local Tesco Express sites to large Tesco Extras and Superstores. Around 86% of all sales are from the UK. Tesco operates in 12 countries outside the UK, including China, Japan and Turkey. It has recently operates in USA as well. Tescos strategy includes diversifying and growing the business by international expansion. In its non -UK operations Tesco builds on the strengths it has developed as market leader in the UK supermarket sector. Tesco uses the approach as per the needs of the market such as in Thailand and Bangkok where the foods are not pre packaged as it would be in UK. Tesco needs people across a wide range of both store based and non store jobs: In stores, it needs checkout staff, stock handlers, supervisor as well as many specialists such as pharmacists and bakers. Its distribution depots require people skilled in stock management and logistics. Head office provides the infrastructure to run Tesco efficiently. Roles here include human resources, legal services, accounting, and marketing property management and information technology. Tescos business objectives aim to ensure all work together towards achieving its objectives. It needs to ensure is has right number of people in the right jobs at the right time. To do this, it has a structured process for recruitment and selection to attract applicants for both managerial and operational roles. Workforce planning: Workforce planning is the process of analysis an organizations likely future needs and requirement for people in terms of numbers, skills and locations. It helps an organization to recognise how those needs can be met through recruitment and training. It is very vital for a company like Tesco to plan ahead. As there is a competitive market and Tesco needs to grow in this market. It requires recruiting right people on a regular basis for both the food and non food parts of the business. Position become available because: New stores are open in the UK and International market as well which requires recruiting new people for the new position. Jobs are created when someone retire or resign or get promotion to other positions within Tesco. New jobs can be created as the company changes its processes and technology. Tesco uses a workforce planning table to establish the likely demand for new staff. This includes both managerial and non managerial position. For example in 2009/2010, the workforce planning suggested to have 3000 new managers for its business growth. The planning process runs through each year from the last week in February. There are quarterly reviews in May, August and November, so Tesco can adjust staffing levels and recruit where necessary. It allows to have sufficient time and flexible to meet the demands for staff and allows the company to meet its strategic objectives. Tesco generally seeks to fulfil its vacancies internally than going to externally as it believes to motivate it current staff. It practises what it calls talent planning. An individual can apply for higher position through annual appraisal scheme. Employees identify roles in which they would like to develop their careers with Tesco. Managers set out technical skills, competencies and behaviours necessary for the roles, kind of training to be given, so that a person can be ready to take the applied role. This helps Tesco to achieve its business objectives and employees to achieve their personal and career objectives. A very important element in workforce planning is to have clear job descriptions and person specifications. Steps 01: Job Description: Job title To whom the job holder is responsible For whom the job holder is responsible Job description of roles and responsibilities A person specification set out the skills, characteristics and attributes that a person need to do a particular job Together with the job descriptions and person specifications provide the basis for job advertisements. This helps job applicants and a post holder to know what is expected of them. They should: It contains enough information to attract suitable people It helps to select right applicant with right skills to be called for interview Set targets and standard for job performance Job descriptions and person specifications show how a job holder fit into Tesco business. They help Tesco to recruit the right people. They provide a benchmark for each job in terms of responsibilities and skills. Attracting and Recruitment: Recruitment involves attracting the right standard of applicants to apply for vacancies. Tesco advertises in different ways depending on the job available. Internal Recruitment: Tesco first looks at internal talent plan to fill a vacancy. Internal recruitment process list all current employees who are looking for a move, either horizontally or vertically growth. Tesco advertises the post internally on the intranet for two weeks. It helps to motivate the current employees to grow internally stronger and shape their career growth. External Recruitment: For external recruitment, Tesco advertises job vacancies via Tesco website or through vacancies board in stores. Managerial positions are made online. The right applicants are invited for an interview followed by attendance at an assessment centre for final stage of the selection process. People interested in store based jobs with Tesco can approach stores with CV or register through job centre plus. The store then prepares a waiting list of people applying in this way and calls them in as jobs become available. Pharmacist and bakers Tesco uses the external sources of advertisement which is: Through offline media and its website Advertising through magazines such as The Appointment Journal or on Google Through radio and television Tesco will seek the most cost-effective way of attracting its right applicants. As we know that advertising through television, radio or some magazines are really expensive however at times it becomes really important for any companies to advertise the right job to the right people so that they can learn more about the job. Tesco uses the easy way to advertise its job vacancies and has a simple application process. When any applicants browses the Tescos website it becomes easy for them to find which jobs are available like local jobs, management jobs and head office positions. Tescos website also has the online applications for candidates to apply their application forms directly. Selection: Now comes the real difficult time to choose the right candidates from the applicants who have applied for the vacancy, whilst keeping in mind the employments laws and regulations. Screening is the most important part of selection process. This makes it easier to understand that the selected candidates are the right fit for job requirements. In the first stage of screening, Tesco selectors will carefully look at each applicants Curriculum Vitae (CV). The CV summarises the applicant personal details, education and job history to date. A well written and positive CV helps Tesco to analyse whether an applicant matches the person specification for the job. Most of the company also provides a job type match tool on its careers web page. This tool helps the people who are interested in working with Tesco and can see where they fit before applying for the job. There are several stages in this process which Tesco uses to select the external management candidates. As the candidate passes the screening stage attends an assessment centre. The assessment centre is taken place in store and run by the managers. They help to provide regularity in the selection process. Applicants are given various tasks, including problem solving or team-working activities. This involves the problems they might have to deal with at work. As the candidate passes the assessment centre they are put for an interview. When interview takes place the Line managers for the job on offer takes part in it to make sure the right candidate fits the job requirements. Task 2 Build Winning teams: Identify the mix of knowledge, skills and experience necessary for its teams to fulfil their functions within the organization: Team management flourishes in a supportive environment in which the manager effectively delegates and the team members effectively communicate in an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect. Its a commonsense approval of letting people improve their performance by improving they use. Mix knowledge, skills and experience necessary for the teams: It is not easy to form a successful team. Belonging to a team is a result of feeling part of something much bigger than you. It has lot to with the understanding of the mission or objectives of your organization. Though you work for specific function or you belong to different department, even then you are unified with other organization member to accomplish the overall objectives. In order to have a effective team following criteria are important: Unity in and respect for the primary task. Ideas and opinions needs to be expressed i.e are open communications. Mutual trust is revealed in actions. There is always a support by the presence of care, concern and active help. It is an active process that involves the personal contributions of all members equally. Selective use of the teams, leaders and trainers are required to know which groups are good to use for certain tasks, group effectiveness differs by project. Leadership is to manage and integrate all characteristics into the norm for team behaviour. Team relationships and building rapport: Individual in a team create a collaborative effort to achieve common goals and may need to give up individual autonomy in order to attain those goals and may need to give up individual in order to attain those goals. Each individual in a team has talents and abilities that can contribute to a solid work relationship which is needed to be productive in the job. As a team, members have to identify who excel in technical expertise, who are keen in decision making. It is important to identify skills which will help to perform team effectively. This is otherwise known as team synergy through coordinated effort of performing these abilities. Differences in skills and talents are common. Sharing these skills can help to build solid work relationship among team members. For a relationship to become healthy, one has to learn to appreciate each others talents. Being recognized by fellow for the effort contributed for the team is heart-warming and rewarding. Encouraging team members to develop roles during team assignment: It is important to treat everyone in the team equally and encouraging them to participate in every process of the given assignment. Being mutually understanding towards each other which further requires being dependent on each other. Every individual should be encouraged to develop a level of trust for each other in order to believe reliable to each other. In order to make every one involve in the process of assignment, it is important to entrust work to another team member. There can be meeting every now and then to build the confidence of the team member in regards to task given. Self disclosure is a good strategy to involve every member in the process of the given task which can help to establish trust with each other. In order to build trust, the team can hold trust building talks during meeting every now and then. It is important to share a little about you to your teammates will give them to chance to know you as a person. Inject humour and some fun to be comfortable with each other. Task 3 There is a tuff competition in the market where it is important to have a great leader in the company to lead the objective / goals to accomplish. As Tesco is a market leader in UK and international market. Hence, it is important to have right Leaders with right leadership theory. Tesco has adopted Transactional theory to run the company. Transactional Leadership Theory/ Management Leadership Theory: According to Gill Robinson Hickman (2010) Transactional Leadership Theory is defined as It takes place when one person takes the initiative in making contact with other for the purpose of an exchange of valued things. Assumption: Mostly People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to what their manager tells them to do. Style: The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. When the transactional leader allocated work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for the failure. Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Despite of much limitation, transactional leadership is still a popular approach with many mangers. Indeed, it is very much towards the management end of the scale when it is leadership vs. Management spectrum. Leadership style: According to Joseph Clarence Rost (1991) defines Leadership as Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes. Leaders do not have subordinates- at least not when they are leading. Many organizational leaders do have subordinates, but only because they are also managers. When they lead is to have followers and following is always a voluntary activity. Best leader is the when who inspire and do not tell what to do to their subordinate. You have to appeal to them, showing how following them lead to their hearts desire. They must want to follow you and perhaps walk into danger and situations that they would not normally consider risking. Leaders with the strong charisma find it easier to attract people to their cause. As a part of their persuasion they typically promise transformational benefits, such that their followers will not just receive extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people. Although many leaders have a charismatic style of some extent, this does not require a loud personality. They are very effective at creating the loyalty that great leaders engender. This leader are good to people but that does not mean they are friendly with them. They often maintain and retain a degree of separation and aloofness. They are very achievement focused then paying to much attention to tasks. Members are always enthusing others to work towards their vision. They are always pursuing their vision; they consider it natural to encounter problems and hurdles that must be overcome along the way. In Tesco organization often the leaders/managers tries have the combination of leadership style which would best suit the success of the organization. Combination of Transactional and Transformation Leadership Style helps to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. Vision, goals and values that are effectively communicated to the subordinates / team members is very important. Communication between the leader and the team, and within the team, is vital if success is to be achieved. Everybody likes to feel involved, that they feel involved, that they have a part to play and nurturing this is a skilful and often time-consuming task. Goals need to be achievable within the time task. Expectations of your team need to be realistic, practical and flexible. It is very important to communicate vision, goals and values to colleagues. The way an effective leader recognises the values of delegating task to colleagues, once again this reinforces their involvement and common purpose. However, support is often necessary so you will need to ensure that appropriate forms of supports are both available and accessible. All colleagues may not share the passion that a leader may have for the project but this does not mean that they should not be involved. It is therefore important to keep in mind their responsibilities and personalities so that you can maximise the efforts of your teams. It is important to enthuse and motivate its colleagues to achieve objectives they are as follows: By involving them, many employees want to be involved in the ongoing development and progress of their company. Communicate. It is important to communicate to their employees or colleagues by email, memos, telephone and meeting. Celebrate individual and team performance. It is important to recognising the individual efforts and appraising their performances. Set challenging goals. It is important to set challenging goals that drive all the colleagues to work hard to accomplish them. Give them the tools to succeed. No team will stay motivated if they do not have a right tools required to do their job. This includes equipment, internal support, inventory, marketing materials and etc. Believe in your people. The majority of people want to well-very few individuals approach a job with the intent of messing up. Task 4 Performance monitoring and assessment Objective setting techniques is used to set specific objective for enterprise performance or as they are related to some specific activity or initiative. An objective can be defined as a specific result that is desirable to achieve, within a specified time period. Goals differ than objectives; a goal is specific target to be reached. Purpose: The purpose of objective setting is to determine key achievement results, desired by an enterprise or other group in support of its support vision and mission, to determine key achievement results for a change project to measure progress and to evaluate accomplishment and to facilitate goal setting. Benefits: The benefit of objective setting is that common objectives facilitates consensus and provide a focus for taking action. Objectives also provide a way to measure progress. The wider the participation in setting the objectives, greater is the commitment and motivation to achieve them. Tesco has always adopted a technique and process which is best suitable to achieve the objective and ultimately achieving the targets. The best technique is SMART objectives: Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time Based. Every technique used in objective setting should follow the basic needs and requirement. Tesco needs to manage the performance of its employees effectively if it is to remain as the UKs leading retailer and maintain a competitive edge. This means that there must be an effective management control exercised at both individual and organisational level. A range of processes and techniques are placed within all Tesco stores and in the Tesco offices, which allow individual employees to know how well they are doing, and for managers to be able to monitor how well their subordinates are performing. Tescos managers exercise control at an individual and organisational level through: Planning by setting objectives and targets. Maintaining performance standards are important. Rectifying mistakes and taking action. The process described above contributes to management by.. The objective of using performance monitoring techniques as a key element in the management of projects is to: Regularly assess the achievement of or the potential for achieving technical, financial, and economic goals of the project. Provide the management of the EA, the borrower and the Bank with an effective means of measuring the progress of a project, its components, and the adequacy and timeliness of the provision and use of funds. Determine the form and nature of corrective actions necessary to achieve goals monitored by performance indicators. Importance of monitoring performance: All successful organisations have to monitor their performance in order to keep their data updated or to increase their performance level in the market. To have an improvement in performance the management needs to have proper information about the current performance. In order to analyse the performance the management needs to identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) which will help the management to monitor progress. There are three areas of activity within every professional firm that are critical to success and KPIs needs to be established in each of them: Measures relating to business development and financial performance The view of clients about the range and delivery and provision of professional services firm services Views of personnel about all aspects of their relationship within the professional firms Tesco is successful because they are been agreeing and identifying all this KPIs and considering how best to measure them. Tesco is so successful because they have using the most important factor that is delegation contingency factors where it is very essential management skills. A good delegation help to save time, develops the people, grooms a successor and motivate the people. There are some delegation contingency factors which need to be taken under consideration in order to be successful in the market and they are: Size of the organisation Importance of the decision and duty Culture of the organisation Complication of the task Qualities of employee Tesco has always strived hard to motivate its colleagues and the best way to do is giving them responsibility, by making them feel that they are important part of the organization. Hence, Tesco has always strived to delegate its responsibility. Any job is assigned to its colleague through proper delegating technique or process: Understand the Task: It is important to understand the task so that you can clearly communicate the task to the person undertaking the task. It is important to understand the barriers and resources which are required to complete the task. Find the right person: It is very important to find the right person who is motivated enough to undertake the task with the right skills and knowledge. It is important to communicate the expectations of the task, so as to determine the ownership of the task which he/she will fully responsible success of it. Communicate the task: Take the time to clearly to communicate the task. Expectation from the task has to clearly communicate. It is important to communicate the ownership clearly to the delegated person. Provide resources, remove barriers: It is important to give all resources and remove all barriers in order to succeed in the task. To provide the success of the task, it is important to provide all the resources, technology, people or time for successful completion of the task. Guarantee Understanding: Delegator has to make sure that the person who has delegated with the task has understood everything completely. Encourage Success: It is important to make the person delegated realise that you have full confidence in them and hence the task has been given to them with full resources and technology. Follow up, Reward: To follow up is important which would decide whether the success of the task. Proper delegation helps to succeed in the task given which in return motivate its colleagues. Tesco has always tried to improve its performance and hence it has adopted the MBO ( Management By Objective ) is a process in which managers / employees set objectives for the employee, periodically evaluate the performance, and reward according to the result. It mainly focuses on the attention on what has to accomplish (goals) rather than how it has to be achieved. They are classified into Corporate Objective, Functional Objective and Individual Objective. An objective must be SMART as shown in the below diagram: Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time specific SMARTer Objective for _________________ By ____/_____/___ , __ _____________________________________________________ will have ___________________________ [WHEN] _____________________________________________________________ [WHO/WHAT, include a number that you can measure] ________________________________________________________________________, [HOW, WHY (remember to specify results Diagram 1: http://www.rapidbi.com/created/WriteSMARTobjectives.html This diagram below will show us the factors which are affecting the performance: Diagram 2: http://userwebs.cth.com.au/~gcutts/Management/19a_factors.htm Ability: Ability, skills and knowledge which are used for performing to the highest level is the important key factor affecting performance Effort: The amount of manual or mental energy that a person is ready to spend on a job to reach a certain a level of performance. Incentive and motivation could affect the level of performance of an individual. Motivation: Motivated people can have an affect their performance. Motivated people can achieve 80-90% ability level whereas de motivated can achieve only 20-30% of the ability. Equity and Expectation: It is important to treat and reward equally avoiding any discrimination which would ground any in abilities or de motivate. Task or role and perception: It is important to know where one is heading or the direction towards which an individual. Standard and job description must be known and understood. Environmental factors: Other factors which could affect the performance such as time constraints, lack of resources or obsolete equipment, information overload or conflicting priorities. Co-operation from the other staff or department, policies and supervision exercised.

Glass Structures :: Buildings Building Essays

Glass Structures The name of the structure doesn’t matter as much as the pleasure received; some may call them glass rooms or greenhouses. The uses of these glass structures vary as the weather they see. The structures all contain glass allowing people a place to view the natural environment inside. These structures are mediums in which outside and inside environments are connected. For many people myself included, there is a fantasy of being in an environment that is exotic and surreal. Conservatories started around the nineteenth century, a time of the Golden Age. English architecture, allowed designers to show off a different side, one that was open and enjoyable, in contrast to being useful or industrial. Conservatories were built for the wealth class. Wealth alone would not have brought about conservatories if it were not for the development of technology in heating, ventilation, iron, and glass . In addition, to the development of technology the interest in growing edible fruits, vegetables and exotic species also inspired the development. Palms were the desired tree of type, representing happiness and a symbol of wealth. To grow a palm tree in a cold climate involves having wealth no matter what. Conservatories didn’t develop without having some problems. The most obvious problem being glass, which makes up most of the structure. In the 16 Th. Century bull eyes glass was very expensive. The economics of having a conservatory did not become more realistic until Louis Lucas de Nehou invented sheet glass in 1688. The problem of glass was in the winter when the water would expand between the layers of windows and break. The other issue with glass is sealing it to keep water out and moisture in. Sealing the glass also affects the heating and ventilation. Stoves were most commonly used for heating the building. The cost of heating can differ in cost depending on warm of the green house. The glass house could be kept as warm as the rest of the house, costing a lot of money, or just warm enough to keep it from freezing, costing less. Ventilation can be solved by opening and closing the windows along with elaborate piping systems is desired. Other ways to reduce the air temperature is by having shading. This can be natural such as shade by deciduous trees, or vines. The other option is to have shades made of fabric, wood or another material that can be drawn when needed.

Lemon Law

Lemon Law The North Carolina Lemon Law is a consumer protection law enacted to provide recourse after having purchased a defective vehicle. The North Carolina Lemon Law is similar to lemon laws in other states, but there are some differences. North Carolina’s lemon law requires automobile manufacturers to repurchase or replace a vehicle that has not been properly repaired within a â€Å"reasonable number of attempts†. In North Carolina, this reasonable number is 4 attempts or if the car has been out of service waiting repair for a cumulative total of 20 or more business days during any 12-month period of the warranty.The North Carolina Lemon Law gives relief to those who either buy or lease a vehicle that has a gross weight of 10,000 pounds or less. It covers cars, trucks, motorcycles and most vans. It does not cover, however, house trailers. The North Carolina Lemon Law covers any kinds of defects that impair the value, use or safety of the vehicle to the consumer. The defects does not have to affect the drivability of the car but could be problems such as defective paint, heating system or excessive noise. It is very important to read the warranty book that came with the new or leased vehicle carefully.The warranty will tell you what is covered and for how long. When you buy or leased your vehicle, you probably will have to sign a lot of paperwork. It is important to read your copies of this paperwork very carefully to find out if the manufacturer wants you to waive your rights to a trial by jury in the case of problems and settle through arbitration instead. Arbitration is usually not in the best interest of the consumer in lemon law cases, so make sure you know what your rights are before you buy or lease.READ IT ALL!!! Once you have purchased or leased a new vehicle that needs to be taken in for repairs, it is important that you start keeping records at this point, in case they are needed later. When taking your vehicle in to an authorized de aler for repairs, keep a detailed list of what needs to be repaired for yourself along with the dealer. Get repair orders for your vehicle and make sure they state all repairs and how long your vehicle was in the shop including dates and mileage.The North Carolina Lemon Law requires the consumer to notify the manufacturer and finance company in writing of defects once a car has been out of service for 15 business days or has been sent in for repair for the same defect three times. This is extremely important. Without written notification to the manufacturer, you will not have a claim. Keep copies of all correspondence with the manufacturer and finance company. The best defense in a lemon law case is accurate facts and information in the form of records.

South African Breweries Essay Example

South African Breweries Essay Example South African Breweries Essay South African Breweries Essay In 2001 South African Breweries (SAB) finds itself as the fifth largest brewer in the world. SAB has brewing operations in 21 different countries around the world with an annual output of 77 million hectolitres of beer. South African Breweries also holds a chain of 77 Southern Sun hotels throughout Southern Africa and also owns three casinos.( sabmiller.com/ ) South African Breweries (SAB) has grown on the basis of its strength in developing markets, first in Africa and then in other parts of the world. SAB has become one of the major beer and beverage companies in the world. It was registered in London by a syndicate of investors from the UK and South Africa in 1895. Castle Large was launched in Johannesburg in 1898 and in same year SAB was listed on the London stock exchange. In South Africa, SAB leads the beer market with Castl Larger. However, its wider portfolio included: * SAB: beer- south Africa and continental Africa with breweries for both larger and sorghum and brands such as Castle, Carling Black Lable, hansa Pilsner, Lion, Amstel, Heineken, Hoftbrau, Dakota Ice and 24 other brands. * SABI Asia: breweries in china and India; with 18 major beer brands in China and purified water and Soya milk. * SAB Europe: breweries in the Canary Island, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia and Slovakia and brands including Pilsner Urquell, Gambrinus, Radegast, Keller, Ursus, Redds, lech and Tyskie. * Other beverage interests: butting plants in Africa of spring water, soft drinks, juices and sparkling water, including the Coca-Cola, Schweppes, and Appetiser range. * Southern Sun hotels (77 hotels throughout Southern Africa) and 3 casinos. ( Jonson, G Scholes, K, 2002 PG 898) The 1998 annual report of SAB explained the Groups strategy: SABs International focus has been on countries in which it believes it could use it expertise, which has been gained over 100 yeas in south Africa, to develop beer markets in emerging economies. SAB has invested significantly in its core business, and has commenced brewing operation in a future 5 African countries, 3 Chinese provinces, and 4 Eastern European countries since 1995. SAB intends to continue to protect and further develop its South Africa operation This start with upgrading quality and consistency to create a beer for which people are prepared to pay more and which can give us a healthy profit margin. Then comes improvement to marketing and distribution. Next we improve productivity and capacity South Africa was the original market for SAB and remains centrally important. However, here, the company had experienced mixed fortunes. In 2000 it had suffered a2 per cent decline in volume, but could report an increase in its margins as a result of continuing productivity initiatives. The main reason for the downturn was the domestic situation in South Africa, and in particular a switch in consumer spending. The proportion of disposable income which the average south African spends on beverage and tobacco has fallen steadily since 1992.the normalisation theory suggests that this shift in consumer expenditure will continue as a higher proportion of discretionary expenditure moves from immediate gratification to self-improvement. According to the SABs, in the meantime, we continue to work hard to increase our market share in the total south African liquor market by making beer the alcoholic drink of first choice for more people primarily through better channel segmentation, distribution and promotions. Our percentage share of the total liquor market is in the mid-50s, so there is scope for future increase. SABI operated in 13 other countries in Africa. In many African countries, SABs South African brands, particularly Castle Larger, are already known and are used by SABIA is currently pursuing a strategy to make Castel Larger the first pan-African beer. Castel larger is currently brewed in 10 African countries. SABIAs strategy is to invest in African countries with lo per capital beer consumption but where SAB believes there is growth potential. SABIA have pursued a policy of expansion into other African states by acquisition and by establishing Greenfield breweries China is second largest beer market in the world in terms of consumption and is currently growing at over 10 per cent per annum. SAB now sells over eight million hectolitres; last year we grew by 38 per cent. China is a fragmented market of around 200 million hectolitres a year, which vast potential for SAB the aim in china is to develop the quality end of the mainstream brand sector. This allow SAB to keep the cost of capital expenditure down and avoid the expensive marketing programmes characteristic of area such as Beijing and Shanghai, where competition is intense. SABIEs strategy has been to invest in countries whose markets are developing from state-run economies to market economies, which typically leads to increased consumer demand. Due in part to the previous state ownership of many breweries and associated business, there had been a lack of capital investment in plans and distribution system, and many of the working practices were inefficient and outdated. SABIE seeks to identify existing operations where, by upgrading brewery and distribution infrastructures and augmenting the operations with SABIE management skills, it can improve marketing, product quality, and productivity so as to increase market share and profitability. Operations in each country are run autonomously SAB completed renovation and construction of its brewery at Kaluga, south west of Moscow, in just eight months and launched its own brand Golden Barrel. This brand has now provided such a great success that the Kaluga brewerys capacity is being expanded from 480,000 to 1.4 million hectolitres is planned. In addition to Golden Barrel brand our portfolio will include a number of foreign brands brewed under licence, such as Staropraman, Holsten Premium and Miller Genuine Draft. In 1999 SAB merged the two beer companies which it controlled jointly with Euro Agro Centrum to create a single company Kompania Piwowarska SAB, bewaring three Polish brand this merger enabled SAB to create a unified brand portfolio, increase productivity, and make saving on aspects of the business ranging from 24 hour operations to distribution synergies. In Hungary SAB had well-established brands, including Dreher, but the market was fiercely competitive and there had been a considerable switch away from alcoholic drink and a consequent decline in beer consumption. SAB had reduced its production capacity in 1999 by closing one of its two breweries and by 2000 was in the process of reducing its distribution centres from 18 to 9. Many commentators believed that for a brewery of its size SAB needed to have a major brand in developed markets. It had tired to do so. It had attempted to acquire bass brewers but this was taken by Interbrew of Belgium. Kronenbourg had been acquired by Scottish Newcastle. And it was known that ASB was on the lookout for such a major brand. In recent years SAB has committed significant resources both to international acquisitions and to the reconstruction of acquired business. SAB intended to continue to protect and further develop its SA operations, while investing for growth in its international beer business, where a profitable base, with critical mass in selected developing markets and regions, has now been achieved. Incremental growth, both organic and through acquisition, is being pursued aggressively. It also SAB gave an attentiona to the e-commerce marketing by creating a web site with Microsoft Company. The SAB acquisition of the US brand Miller may create an opportunity for marketing its established brands in the worlds largest market, but it has also been necessary to consolidate the position of the famous names in local markets. Hence the creation of the Castle lager Web site (www.castlelager.co.za). Flexibility was just one concern for SAB, says Warren. The Castle lager site is both interactive users can submit their own pictures for snap competitions, for example and transactional. A number of Castle-brand merchandise products can be ordered via the site. Another advantage for SAB is the depth of Microsoft skills among their own staff, as well as the obvious ease with which Content Management Server integrates with the companys existing Microsoft server products. The strategic position that SAB has chosen to follow is to continue to protect and further develop its South African operations, whilst investing for growth in its international beer business, where a profitable base, with critical mass in selected developing markets and regions has been achieved, incremental growth, both organic and through acquisitions is being pursued aggressively.( Johnson, G Scholes, K ,2002 PG 898) South African Breweries has chosen to follow an aggressive strategic business plan in its overseas ventures, based on market expansion. SAB takes a share in a brewery with a local partner and whilst retaining the brand, transforms the business by upgrading the quality and consistency of the beer, for which people are prepared to pay more, thus giving a healthy profit margin. Once SAB has acquired an initial local strong hold they then advance into regions beyond the brewerys original catchment area. They continue to build initial mass in the region and progress over time to a national basis. Many believe that for a Brewery the size of South African Breweries and with such international presence the company needs to have a major brand in the developed markets. Whilst in South Africa there is a strong presence of the Beer, Castle lager and of other such alcoholic fruit juices, there is little brand recognition in countries such as Europe or China. SAB has attempted in the past to acquire a leading brand but has failed. They had attempted to acquire Bass Brewers but this was taken by Interbrew of Belgium, Kronenbourg had been acquired by Scottish Newcastle. The directors of SAB believed that the listing of south African Breweries on the London Stock Exchange would put SAB in a strong position to pursue its strategy of growth by giving the group greater access to world capital markets and providing it with the financial resources and flexibility to pursue this strategy in an effective and competitive manner.( Jonson, G Scholes, K, 2002 PG 898) South African Breweries concentrates its targeting on the mainstream, rather than the premium beer market. There are concerns in parts of Africa that the castle brand is insufficiently differentiated and was caught in the middle. Premium brands such as Heineken or Amstel are not much more expensive then Castle larger, whilst Sorghum beer, often drunk in townships was a good deal cheaper and positioned Castle as a premium beer in relation to it. South African Breweries already has an established portfolio of businesses across the world (excluding new ventures with Miller and central America). There has been volume growth and improved margins in South Africa, Europe, Africa and Asia. South African Breweries must therefore, improve the promotional aspect of their company if they are to see increased profits. SAB is struggling to achieve a perfect correlation between price and quality as the cost of raw materials is becoming greater and they have encountered increased energy and selling costs. sabmiller.com/results/annual2003/index.asp SAB could continue to operate as separate business units across the world with different brands, different niche markets and different marketing plans or they could integrate the business into a single organisation with a well-differentiated brand. They would then have to create divisions around the target markets (e.g. geographically) or centred on consumer groups (e.g. by age group). Whatever the strategy South African Breweries chooses to adopt they need to identify the bases of competitive advantage, which will arise from an understanding of both markets and customers. South African Breweries needs to understand what a particular customer requires from their product and how they differ between segments. For example, the Castle Larger was poorly differentiated in parts of Africa. The beer didnt hold the prestige that some of the more quality beers did such as Heineken or Amstel and was much more expensive then the cheaper beer Sorghum that was drunk in many townships. South African Breweries needs to be able to predict possible scenarios in the emerging market for at least 5-10 years time, sharing and debating these scenarios improves organisational learning by making managers more perceptive about the forces in the business environment and what is really important.( Jonson, G Scholes, K, 2002 PG 107). There is no point in just waiting for a future event to happen and then implementing a strategy South African Breweries needs to be aware that the average beer drinker is becoming more fashion conscious. According to a report by Audience selection by Mintel Reports in the UK, this millennium 55% of the 18-24 year olds expected to be drinking more than usual. Research has shown that the 18-34 year old age groups share of purchasing beer has grown from 71% in 1997 to 85% in 1999, which again emphasises how critical the brewers advertising and imagery must be in this sector. Todays generations are growing up in a larger-orientated environment which means the shift to larger should continue in the long term.( Mintel International Group LTD, 2003). South African Breweries should adopt they must develop a strong business plan comprising of five key stages. Which are; Segmentation of the market, develop a strong marketing mix concentrating on the 4ps, product, price, promotion and place. PESTEL Analysis of the macro-environment, political, economic, sociological, technological, ecological and legal, recognise the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities (SWOT) of the company, predict Future scenarios and market trends Beer drinkers purchase frequently and quickly becomes brand loyal switching only when there is a more competitively priced product or promotion. SAB needs to step up the brand image especially in continental Europe and the United Kingdom where the company is still relatively unknown. SAB needs to think carefully about where they are going to sell their product, supermarkets, off-licences, the Internet, Wholesalers. They have to be aware that selling in supermarkets is extremely competitive and from time to time they will have to run promotions. SAB must understand that here in the UK a rule of thumb is that at least à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1million per year is required to achieve impact in a national advertising campaign.( Jobber D, 2001, PG 19) South African Breweries should choose to follow the hybrid strategy. The success of this strategy will be evident when the company is able to deliver enhanced value in terms of customer needs, whilst also having a cost base that permits low prices and is sufficient for reinvestment to maintain and develop bases of differentiation. SAB is already a worldwide organisation with a growing presence. This strategy would work well for the company if they are able to achieve much greater volumes then the competition, the low selling prices will be offset. The hybrid strategy also works very well with entry into new markets. As SAB has a strong history of foreign acquisitions this will help them ultimately take share, divert the attention of the competitor, and establish a foothold from which they could move forward. (Jonson, G Scholes, K, 2002, PG 328) SAB is not yet developed in the majority developed countries or created international brands, SAB Miller needs to create an international brand after the several mergers and acquisitions it has done. The African heritage could be considered as a weakness for SAB Miller SAB has been following the acquisition strategy for many of years, to be able to expand geographically and also diversify its operations in different sectors. Although, we are assuming that SAB has been able to generate a high rate of retained earnings and/or access to debt agreements with financial institutions, the ability to improve the marketing and distribution channels of its acquired businesses, underline the financial power of SAB. Since the mission of the group is to be a world class manufacturer and deliver high quality beer, the strategy used by SAB is appropriate. SAB has been able to gain a significant market share and improve its quality by not only acquiring different companies around the globe, but by having a decentralized marketing and sales group within each country. This strategy has also helped it to increase the economies of scale by effectively utilizing its capacity and productive methods. SAB, has been using its resources and capabilities as effectively as possible in order to follow and attain its strategies SAB has achieved to establish a global business network. By doing so, the company increases its turnover and its profits, which without doubt satisfies stakeholders expectations. Thats why they should support the pursue of the strategy even if they feel insecure about certain acquisitions.

Panic Disorder essays

Panic Disorder essays Imagine that you are sitting alone in your room. It is quiet, and you are calmly reading a book. Suddenly someone comes up behind you and yells Hey!! You become startled and frightened. A surge of adrenaline overcomes your body. Your heart begins to race, your legs to tremble, you have butterflies in your stomach. After a moment, those effects have passed, and your body feels normal once again. These are the same symptoms you may suffer from if you are afflicted with Panic Disorder. In the case of Panic Disorder however, these feelings of distress can be experienced frequently, even when there is no situation presented to warrant them. Panic Disorder is a form of Anxiety Disorder, and is suffered by up to 2.4 million Americans each year. It is classified by those who suffer from frequent and unprovoked panic attacks, along with feelings of anxiety about when and where the next attack will take place. (www.nimh.nih.gov) Signs of this disorder usually begin at the end of adolescence, ages 18-24. They can be due to hereditary factors, or stress. Although it is undetermined why, women are twice as likely to develop the disorder. (http://panicdisorder.about.com) Although panic attacks can be a normal thing, and most people will experience a panic attack at some point throughout their lives, when they become frequent it is often a sign for concern. When panic attacks turn into panic disorder, it becomes a life altering condition. Because of the debilitating nature of such attacks, sufferers are often times left unable to cope with the most routine situations. Panic attacks provoke very intense feelings of distress in those who suffer from them. People describe a variety of very disturbing symptoms when experiencing such an episode. Many experience the feeling of impending death, and feelings that there surroundings are surreal. Physical symptoms include a significantly increased heartbeat, s...

The Jazz Age Through Literatur essays

The Jazz Age Through Literatur essays Culture and society are always changing, simply because history is always changing. The events of history mold and define the overall feeling during a period of years. If a countrys economy plummets suddenly, and most of the people lose their job, then people will feel miserable and it shall be referred to as The Great Depression. On the other hand, should a country suddenly become victorious in a major war, the feeling will be very celebrative and proud. The time after World War I became known as The Jazz Age, penned by F. Scott Fitzgerald himself. (Abbott) On the surface, it was a time of seemingly endless happiness when the only concern of most Americans, at home and abroad, was where to get the next drink. In reality, it was a time of cynicism. By evaluating the lives and the literature of Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald, one gets a comprehensible idea of life in America and Europe during the Jazz Age when it pertaining to relationships, careers, and the immoral corruption of people. Ernest Hemingway was always able to remain in the realm of mental sophistication. Born in Chicago, Illinois in 1899, Hemingway grew up in an upper-class family. (Dunn) He was a volunteer ambulance driver during World War I, and witnessed many horrifying images during his one week of service. (Dunn) He was taken out of service because fragments of a mortar shell hit his leg and he was sent to the hospital for three months. It was during this stay that Hemingway first developed his harsh and abrasive view on life. (Dunn) After the war, Hemingway refused to go to college. His aristocratic mother kicked him out of the house. (True Grit, 146) America had changed over the course of the war. It was no longer the same country he remembered before the war. With no family or job to turn to, Ernest Hemingway moved to Paris, France where he lived on a $3,000-a-year inheritance. (True Grit, 146) He m...

Business System Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business System Technology - Essay Example These three operations can be accessed from the top level menu shown in the screenshot below. The first option allows the user to enter the details of a rental by selecting the appropriate rental type, the place of issuing the rental, the date and duration of the rental period as also the name of the customer. With this, the details can be registered in the system. Also, the users can get an estimate on the sales achieved by each rental outlets for the preceding 7 days on a segment as well as on an overall basis by selecting the appropriate outlet from the drop down list. The application can further be enhanced by developing it across several perspectives. Firstly, several aspects of the operations of the company can be included into the system as separate modules. For instance, the cost of operation, maintenance of cars, the inventory, spare parts used, the wages paid out to workers in the company etc. can be managed by the system. as the capabilities of the system grow, it is advisable to transfer the database from an Access application to a highly capable SQL Server or any other database server as this allows for more features apart from improving the overall performance and quality of the system. the application can be migrated to the web, so as to allow customer to be able to log in and make online bookings. Such a feature will eliminate the need to maintain several offices and further relieve from the need to enter every sale made as the system could then be configured to handle sale and purchase features automatically. As such, these are some of the areas where the application can be enhanced further. Visual Studio is one of the most magnificent applications ever to have been used by software developers. Unlike competitors such as Eclipse or Borland, Visual Studio, a product from Microsoft has succeeded in capturing a major chunk of the market. Three major

Case Studies in Ethnic Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Case Studies in Ethnic Conflict - Essay Example Despite the Tamils being previously viewed as a passive and non-violent community, their terrorist organisation the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or LTTE was â€Å"arguably the most disciplined, dedicated, and ruthless guerrilla organization in the world†Ã‚  (DeVotta, 2004: 170). The secessionist movement of the LTTE also referred to as the Tamil Tigers, soon turned into a vicious struggle between them and the Sri Lankan government for territorial control over the eastern and northern regions. From a survey of the literature available on the LTTE, it is found that there are various factors that led to their emergence, ranging from ethnicity and language issues, to political, ideological, military and economic factors. This essay will study the various causal factors (national and international) that led to the rise of the LTTE and their subsequent importance in the Sri Lankan politics since 1983 until their demise in 2009. Discussion LTTE, which was founded in 1976, aimed a t creating an independent ethnic state for the Tamils in the north and north-eastern parts of Sri Lanka, often referred to as the Tamil Eelam. ... This view of a struggle for independence had a widespread acceptance among the Tamils, even among the non-combatant ones. To justify the Tamil claim for independence and separate identity from the Sri Lankan political system, it was claimed that the Singhalese and Tamils, prior to the British intervention, existed as two distinct communities occupying separate areas, and the Tamils were looking to re-assert their political sovereignty (Kulandaswamy, 2000). There were claims that the Singhalese and Tamils existed as two territorially distinct States with political sovereignty until 1833, when the British brought them together for administrative convenience, under the Colebrook Commission, and there were further claims that the Tamils did not give up their legal sovereignty and remained independent even under the British rule (Vaddukkodai Resolution, 1976). However, de Silva (1981) in his researches suggested that the LTTE brought in the ‘two-nation theory’ (prior to the B ritish rule), merely to justify their violent struggle for liberation and use of arms, which had a greater support and attraction at an international level. The characteristics used for establishing the ‘two nation’ theory were separate territories, language differences between the two communities, and distinct political entities. However, a closer analysis revealed that under the British rule, despite creating distinct divisions using their classical divide-and-rule policy, they managed to maintain a strict territorial integrity (de Silva, 1981). In another analysis, the conflict is termed a terrorist movement, which was a political difference between the Sri Lankan government and a secessionist group (Bandarage, 2009). Bandarage claimed that according to Uphoff (2000), the

Sociology of Developing Countries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Sociology of Developing Countries - Essay Example The composition of the labor market in the country is a contributing factor in ethnic conflicts in the country. The White settlers in the country are part of the minority group but they occupy and dominate employment in the preferred job categories. This is a clear demonstration of the racial preference given to certain ethnic groups in the country. The labor market in the country is inclined towards recruiting co-ethnics for the preferred employment opportunities at the expense of other ethnic groups (Coppin & Olsen, 1998). The human capital earning in Trinidad and Tobago is another contributing factor in the ethnic conflicts in the nation. The Indians and Africans, who constitute the larger ethnic group, form the dominant labor force with a representation of more than 80%. The other ethnic groups, apart from the Africans and Indians, have low income earnings because of their alignment from the labor force. Coppin and Olsen (1998) state that inhabitants in the country with fair skin color were recruited for employment with low qualifications compared to their counterparts with dark skin color. The socioeconomic status in the country is associated with the marital status and formation. The marital status of people differs by ethnicity and therefore marriage may be a contributing factor in the ethnic conflicts in the country by widening the ethnicity margin (Olsen, 2009). The external interventions may not be necessary for the people of Trinidad and Tobago. This approach may further aggravate the ethnic difference that the country is struggling to bridge. Apprehensions often occur when several ethnic groups stay in close proximity. The approach that the society uses to resolve the differences varies and may make or break it. Trinidad and Tobago has used the internal mechanisms successfully to control and manage the ethnic differences among the

Cognitive Neuropsychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cognitive Neuropsychology - Essay Example It is a known fact that each part of the brain is specialized to help the individual. In other words, the brain or central nervous system triggers various neural mechanisms that tie in with cognitive processes. This is evident, given that most of the abilities that individuals acquire and develop overtime are all contingent upon the normal functioning of the brain. For instance semantic and syntactic development and ability to memorize are dependent upon how well the brain develops. (Wilshire, 2009) Despite the fact that cognitive neuropsychologists only focus on the damage inflicted upon the brain and it may appear that branch is largely related to the brain in actuality cognitive neuropsychology is about the â€Å"Mind†. Cognitive neuropsychology has also been further elaborated by the concept of modularity, according to which the entire process and dynamics of this branch of psychology can be broken down and represented in the form of smaller sub-processes. (Wilshire, 2009) This aspect of the subject was established by Fodor in 1983, but was further developed by David Marr, who considered this so important that they actually elevated this approach into a principle. Hence, this came to be known as the â€Å"Principle of Modular design†. The concept of modularity is typically applied in the field of engineering and computer programming; its application to cognitive sciences is a bit complex but an effective way to represent the process nevertheless. (Rapp, 2001, p. 52) Fodor clearly dictated the method in his book called ‘Modularity of the mind’, in which he clearly demonstrated the relationship between the entire cognitive systems and its various properties. In his... This paper stresses that the basic findings pertaining to cognitive neuropsychology emerged in the 1960’s when a strong correlation was found between the structural impairment of the brain and the psychological functioning of the client. Therefore, if there is any structural irregularity in the brain then it will have major repercussion on various areas of functioning of the individual. The brain acts as the central executive system of the body that is responsible for controlling and coordinating the body. This report makes a conclusion that the absence of tangible evidence that can be used to support the module of these cognitive processes is yet another concern raised in this approach. However, in order to elucidate the process the modular approach has been very effective. Even though the modular approach can be used as plausible explanations for the cognitive processes but, neuropsychologists have conducted extensive researches in order to an alternative explanation to further understand cognitive neuropsychology. The alternative explanation of the processes was expanded using the example of neural damages. The hypothesis was based on the premise that if an individual suffered a neural damage to any part of the head that he or she would suffer significant amount of impairment to the adjacent areas of functioning. Dissociation in general, is a state that is a protective mechanism adopted by the psyche to protect the body from physical and psychological stresses.

Comparitive Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparitive Politics - Essay Example This is presumed to be the fairest political system. This system of governance entails two aspects; political participation and contestation (the former is through voting while the latter is through vying for a political seat). There is better attitudes and intentions of freedom of speech and press (Samuels, 2012). The democratic system of governance is a system which has given people the freedom of meeting and freely expresses their political views without fear or intimidation. There are two types of democracies commonly practiced in the world. Direct democracy is a form of government where leadership is vested in the hands of individuals. It’s also known as a government not only by the people themselves but also for the people. Every individual is given the chance to directly influence the policy making process. The second type of democracy is representative democracy. This is a political system where there is an intermediary political actor between the individual and policy outputs of the society. This is done through electoral process where one person or a group is elected, with the task of representing the voters. Democracy has made it possible for voters to participate in policy making process. Citizens are able to choose the right person to lead unlike other forms of governance where leaders are appointed. Through democracy form of leadership interest of those represented are safeguarded because the real power of leadership lies in the hands of the voters. Equity is the main principle where individuals are entitled to equal rights. The freedom of speech makes people air out their grievances without fear, and this enhances good governance. Due to the way democracy is organized, individuals who to lead this system enjoy a lot of stability and efficiency in administration. Democracy has promoted peaceful politics in different areas; this is due to the fact that there is freedom and rights to be enjoyed by all

Characteristics of Business Leadership Research Paper - 1

Characteristics of Business Leadership - Research Paper Example Indeed, in the fast transforming business dynamics, they provide businesses with inimitable competitive advantage and become intrinsic part of its success. Kouzes, and Posner claim that leaders are visionary and who can inspire others (1988). The Body Shop is scintillating example of such leadership initiative which has constantly set standard for businesses across globe. Ms Anita Roddick had founded the company in 1976 and had displayed excellent leadership traits. The paper would be discussing The Body Shop and Roddick’s leadership traits that had promoted high standard of ethics and quality within the organization. Business initiative The Body Shop, started in 1976 from home by Anita Roddick, was a passionate venture that was focused on the wider welfare of women. The Body Shop cosmetics were launched with a strong entrepreneurial instinct that natural ingredients would be most beneficial for taking care of body and remain beautiful. The first shop at Brighton, UK, was open ed with only 15 products. She received tremendous response that resulted in the opening of second shop within the next 10 months. Thereafter, the popularity of cosmetics made from natural products had unprecedented success. Within a span of 25 years and under her able leadership, it was transformed into multi million project with more than 1980 outlets across 50 nations serving more than 77 million customers and generating revenue of more than $200 million. After takeover by L’Real in 2006, it now has more than 2500 products in more than 60 markets globally. It produces a wide range of body care products from natural ingredients and caters to people from all strata of society (bodyshop.com, 2012). The Body Shop is fundamentally based on the premise of social consciousness and belief that profits are not the major goals of business. The business must be proactive towards the needs of the community and environment (Porter & Kramer, 2006). All the products of Body Shop are ethic ally produced. It supports environment conservation. Natural ingredients within the products are procured from people and places who have adopted sustainable business practice. Most importantly, Roddick’s strong sense of community welfare had led her to create employment opportunities for people in under developed and developing countries like South East Asia, Africa, Brazil, Mexico etc. (Roddick, 1991). Indeed, its major suppliers of the raw products are from these countries who have evolved as a result of Roddick’s proactive support for sustainable business practices. Leadership style Anita Roddick’s leadership style was transformational and relied on motivating others towards a more conscientious and ethically delivered business goals. Burn (1978) emphasizes that transformational leadership encourages relationship building that is based on mutual respect and empowered decision making. Under such leaders, the followers are motivated to developed leadership tra its and use critical thinking for resolving conflicts. Most pertinently, the leaders also propose moral and ethical considerations that hugely benefit the business as well as the society at large. Transformational leaders promote participatory approach which facilitates shared goals and collective decision making processes. Roddick’s leadership traits have significantly contributed towards Body Shop’s success. She has not only been a successful and intuitive business person but also a social activist. She has relentlessly worked for the wider welfare of people and promoted sustainable development as integral part of business strategy. Evaluation of Roddick’s managerial leadership Roddick’s managerial leadership was highly intuitive and distinct in its personal inputs. She strongly believed in ethics and moral

Cognitive Neuropsychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cognitive Neuropsychology - Essay Example It is a known fact that each part of the brain is specialized to help the individual. In other words, the brain or central nervous system triggers various neural mechanisms that tie in with cognitive processes. This is evident, given that most of the abilities that individuals acquire and develop overtime are all contingent upon the normal functioning of the brain. For instance semantic and syntactic development and ability to memorize are dependent upon how well the brain develops. (Wilshire, 2009) Despite the fact that cognitive neuropsychologists only focus on the damage inflicted upon the brain and it may appear that branch is largely related to the brain in actuality cognitive neuropsychology is about the â€Å"Mind†. Cognitive neuropsychology has also been further elaborated by the concept of modularity, according to which the entire process and dynamics of this branch of psychology can be broken down and represented in the form of smaller sub-processes. (Wilshire, 2009) This aspect of the subject was established by Fodor in 1983, but was further developed by David Marr, who considered this so important that they actually elevated this approach into a principle. Hence, this came to be known as the â€Å"Principle of Modular design†. The concept of modularity is typically applied in the field of engineering and computer programming; its application to cognitive sciences is a bit complex but an effective way to represent the process nevertheless. (Rapp, 2001, p. 52) Fodor clearly dictated the method in his book called ‘Modularity of the mind’, in which he clearly demonstrated the relationship between the entire cognitive systems and its various properties. In his... This paper stresses that the basic findings pertaining to cognitive neuropsychology emerged in the 1960’s when a strong correlation was found between the structural impairment of the brain and the psychological functioning of the client. Therefore, if there is any structural irregularity in the brain then it will have major repercussion on various areas of functioning of the individual. The brain acts as the central executive system of the body that is responsible for controlling and coordinating the body. This report makes a conclusion that the absence of tangible evidence that can be used to support the module of these cognitive processes is yet another concern raised in this approach. However, in order to elucidate the process the modular approach has been very effective. Even though the modular approach can be used as plausible explanations for the cognitive processes but, neuropsychologists have conducted extensive researches in order to an alternative explanation to further understand cognitive neuropsychology. The alternative explanation of the processes was expanded using the example of neural damages. The hypothesis was based on the premise that if an individual suffered a neural damage to any part of the head that he or she would suffer significant amount of impairment to the adjacent areas of functioning. Dissociation in general, is a state that is a protective mechanism adopted by the psyche to protect the body from physical and psychological stresses.

Characteristics of Business Leadership Research Paper - 1

Characteristics of Business Leadership - Research Paper Example Indeed, in the fast transforming business dynamics, they provide businesses with inimitable competitive advantage and become intrinsic part of its success. Kouzes, and Posner claim that leaders are visionary and who can inspire others (1988). The Body Shop is scintillating example of such leadership initiative which has constantly set standard for businesses across globe. Ms Anita Roddick had founded the company in 1976 and had displayed excellent leadership traits. The paper would be discussing The Body Shop and Roddick’s leadership traits that had promoted high standard of ethics and quality within the organization. Business initiative The Body Shop, started in 1976 from home by Anita Roddick, was a passionate venture that was focused on the wider welfare of women. The Body Shop cosmetics were launched with a strong entrepreneurial instinct that natural ingredients would be most beneficial for taking care of body and remain beautiful. The first shop at Brighton, UK, was open ed with only 15 products. She received tremendous response that resulted in the opening of second shop within the next 10 months. Thereafter, the popularity of cosmetics made from natural products had unprecedented success. Within a span of 25 years and under her able leadership, it was transformed into multi million project with more than 1980 outlets across 50 nations serving more than 77 million customers and generating revenue of more than $200 million. After takeover by L’Real in 2006, it now has more than 2500 products in more than 60 markets globally. It produces a wide range of body care products from natural ingredients and caters to people from all strata of society (bodyshop.com, 2012). The Body Shop is fundamentally based on the premise of social consciousness and belief that profits are not the major goals of business. The business must be proactive towards the needs of the community and environment (Porter & Kramer, 2006). All the products of Body Shop are ethic ally produced. It supports environment conservation. Natural ingredients within the products are procured from people and places who have adopted sustainable business practice. Most importantly, Roddick’s strong sense of community welfare had led her to create employment opportunities for people in under developed and developing countries like South East Asia, Africa, Brazil, Mexico etc. (Roddick, 1991). Indeed, its major suppliers of the raw products are from these countries who have evolved as a result of Roddick’s proactive support for sustainable business practices. Leadership style Anita Roddick’s leadership style was transformational and relied on motivating others towards a more conscientious and ethically delivered business goals. Burn (1978) emphasizes that transformational leadership encourages relationship building that is based on mutual respect and empowered decision making. Under such leaders, the followers are motivated to developed leadership tra its and use critical thinking for resolving conflicts. Most pertinently, the leaders also propose moral and ethical considerations that hugely benefit the business as well as the society at large. Transformational leaders promote participatory approach which facilitates shared goals and collective decision making processes. Roddick’s leadership traits have significantly contributed towards Body Shop’s success. She has not only been a successful and intuitive business person but also a social activist. She has relentlessly worked for the wider welfare of people and promoted sustainable development as integral part of business strategy. Evaluation of Roddick’s managerial leadership Roddick’s managerial leadership was highly intuitive and distinct in its personal inputs. She strongly believed in ethics and moral

Ethical Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Ethical Decision Making Essay Abstract Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines questions of morality, or right and wrong. In this paper we will discuss the philosophical approaches used in ethical decision making. The two approaches that will be elaborated on are the utilitarian approach and the universal approach. Several questions will be addressed, (1) what is the utilitarian and universal approach? (2) How do we use them in the ethical decision making process and (3) examples of how it relate in the field of Criminal Justice? When conflict arises it’s not always possible to decide who is right or wrong; however our moral responsibility is to resolve problems to the best of our ability. The utilitarian and universal theories are two of several philosophical approaches or methods that can be implemented when making these types of decisions (Zalta Geoff, 2008). The Utilitarian Approach: Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. The utilitarian approach to ethical decision making focuses on taking the action that will result in the greatest good for the greatest number of people. It also focuses on the consequences of the course of action and policy, as well as the affects it has on the well-being of the people directly or indirectly impacted by that action or policy. This approach is used to promote the welfare of everybody by maximizing benefits and minimizing harm (Zalta Geoff, 2008). For instance, when faced with a situation your first thought or question is what should you do? Once you assess the situation then you would apply which ethical decision is the best action to take. If you implement the utilitarian approach you did so with the intent of producing the greatest balance over harm. Utilitarianism offers a relatively straightforward method for deciding the morally right course of action for any particular situation we may find ourselves in. In the criminal justice field this approach can be widely used. To discover what we ought to do in any situation, we first identify the various courses of action that we could perform. Second, we determine all of the foreseeable benefits and harms that would result from each course of action for everyone affected by the action. And third, we choose the course of action that provides the greatest benefits after the costs have been taken into account (Velasquez, Claire, Shanks, S.J). The Universal Approach: The universal approach to ethical decision making is similar to the Golden Rule. The golden rule is best interpreted as â€Å"Treat others as you want to be treated†. Universalism argues that knowledge can and should be applied to everyone in every similar situation (Williams Arrigo, 2008). This approach can be taken in two steps. First, determine whether or not a particular action should be applied to all people under all circumstances. Second, decide if you would be willing to have that same rule to you. This approach claims that ethical principles hold for all and not for some, it is for everybody without exception (Williams Arrigo, 2008). In other words if you act a certain way towards another and are not willing to be treated in that same regard than you are in violation of the universal rule. To apply the universal approach correctly we need to take into consideration the effects our decision making have on other people’s lives. We also have to be able to imagine ourselves in the other person’s shoes on the receiving end of the action. Imagine you are a police officer in pursuit of what seems to be a drunk driver, while in pursuit the drunk driver hits a pregnant woman crossing the street. What do you do, do you stop for her and leave a drunk driver on the road, or do you call the accident in and continue to pursue the drunk driver to keep him from potentially killing himself and others. The utilitarian approach would more likely call for back up and continue after the drunk driver, but if we use this same example and compare it to the universal approach, the question then becomes what would you want done to you. Both philosophical approaches are infused with flaws, the use of â€Å"utilitarian† thinking is not always clear of what form of action should be taken or if the action you took will have a favorable outcome for the majority. It is difficult to judge what decision will supply the best way to respond to a situation. The universal approach unlike the utilitarian bases its decisions on the facts that the action taken is best for everyone regardless of the situation or the difference in people. My choice between the two is somewhat tossed, because my belief is that you should do unto other as you would want done to you, but at the same time my desire to ensure the greatest number of success is important to me as well. Within the Judicial system decisions are made with or without the input of others; however it is our moral obligation to ensure that we make the best ethical decisions that we can, because every decision somehow directly or indirectly affects someone else. References Velasquez, M., Claire, A., Shanks, M. M., S.J. (n.d.). Markula Center for Applied Ethics. Retrieved from Santa Clara University: http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/thinking.html Williams, C. R., Arrigo, B. A. (2008). Is Morality Relative? The variability of Norms and Values. In C. R. Williams, B. A. Arrigo, Ethics, Crime and Criminal Justice (p. 77). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. Zalta, E. N., Geoff, S.-M. (2008). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosphy : http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaethics/

What is the Nature of External Reality?

What is the Nature of External Reality? Worldview is the way a person views the world. Worldview is not just a story or a presumption of life. It is a reality. Worldview is not an assumption of the world. It is a simple, basic belief of life. It is a framework of beliefs through which a person views the meaning of life. A worldview is the way our hearts believe, and not just a thing in our mind. A worldview is an assumption of life that could be true or false. It is a foundation that we believe and live in. There are two basic worldviews. One is based on God, and one is not based on God. A worldview is an argument or a way of guessing why things are the way they are in the world we live in. A person needs to develop his own worldview and believe in what is truth. For a Christian, truth is the Word of God. The first question in this book is What is prime reality-the really real? In Christian Theism, reality is God revealed in the Holy Scriptures. He is the prime reality and is the source of all other reality. He is infinite. He is personal. He is transcendent. He is omniscient. He is sovereign. He is good. In Deism, God created the world and left it to operate on its own. It believes that God does not interact with anyone on earth and denies the true nature of God. In Naturalism, prime reality is matter which is endures forever and is all that exists. It does not believe that God exists. It proposes that the cosmos is the primary reality and pushes God out of the picture. It believes that matter has always existed but probably not in it current state. It is only one thing without any Creator or Divine Being. In Nihilism, nothing exists. There is no God and we are nothing. The universe has no meaning. Existentialism, it believes the same at Naturalism. According to Eastern religions, Go d is in everything, and the cosmos is God. Reality is beyond distinction. They believe that the soul of everyone is actually combined to be the soul of the cosmos, which is the ultimate reality. If something exists that is not God, it is called an illusion. Everything should be combined or united to be The One. Anything that does not combine to be The One is not reality. The One is the ultimate reality. They also believe that there are many roads to The One and that chants can help you obtain ultimate reality. According to the New Age worldview, the soul or the inner being of a person is the prime reality. In other words, self is the reality. Self is important because it is the center of the universe. It is in control of reality. There are three versions which are mentioned. The occult version deals with magic, witchcraft, and similar ungodly acts. The psychedelic deals with reality under another influence to create another reality than the one perceived. The conceptual relativist d eals with the disjunction between what is objective reality and perceived reality. The symbols that society uses do not match what reality is. In Postmodernism, thinking is reality. It is interested in how a person knows rather than what a person knows. It believes that if something is not there, then it cannot be known. It is based on thinking too much. In Islamic Theism, it believes that Allah is God and He is reality. Some people think that maybe the Quran should be included in fundamental reality. The second question is What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? In Christian Theism, external reality is the world that God created. He created all the rules that govern the world. God does answer prayers in relation to His world. In Deism, external reality is the cosmos God created because He created it as a uniformity of cause. It is a closed system, and no miracles are possible. In Naturalism, the universe is composed solely of matter but to human beings, external reality appears in two forms as subjective and objective. In Nihilism, nothing exists. The world is a closed system, and it only acts within itself. In Existentialism, reality is subjective and objective. In Eastern religions, Atman is Brahman that is the sole of each human being and is the soul of the cosmos. It is external reality. Some things are more One than another. Many roads lead to the One. Reality is beyond personality. In New Age religions, external reality is manifested in two dim ensions. The visible universe is accessible through ordinary consciousness, and the invisible universe is accessed through altered states of consciousness. There are three distinct attitudes toward physical question of nature. The occult perceives things in states. The psychedelic perceives things which are projections of conscious self. Conceptual relativity perceives things in which the cosmic consciousness is the consciousness of self. In Postmodernism, matter exists, but God does not exist. In Islamic Theism, external reality is God created the universe, and all its creatures are responsible to Him. The third question is What is a human being? In Christian Theism, humans are created in the image of God. They have intelligence, self-transcendence, morality, and creativity. Human beings were created good; but through the Fall, Gods image was changed in us. In Deism, human beings are a part of the time of the universe. In Naturalism, humans are complex organisms where personalities are an interrelation of chemicals. In Nihilism, humans do not really exist and are basically dead. Their lives are already determined for them so they do not really matter, and they are not responsible for anything. In Existentialism, human beings have to come into full awareness of who they are, and people make themselves who they are. Each person is totally free to determine his destiny. In Eastern religions, the human race is on the edge of extreme change of human nature. They are prototypes of the new age. In New Age, a human is God or Kosmos. They grow in awareness and are transformed. In Postmodern ism, humans make themselves who they are by learning things about themselves. In Islamic Theism, humans are the top of Gods creation. Their high standing in creation means that they have the most responsibility to live up to Gods standards. The fourth question is What happens to a person at death? In Christian Theism, a person will enter the gate to life with God in heaven or the gate to separation from God in hell. In Deism, humans may not have life after his life on earth. In Naturalism, death means the end of a persons personality and individuality. In Nihilism, death is an absurdity. In Existentialism, it believes the same as Naturalism. There is nothing special about it because we are nothing special from other objects. In Eastern religions, a person does die, but death changes nothing that is important. It believes in reincarnation. The soul or the essence of a person is eternal. In New Age religions, there is no fear of death because physical death is not the end of a person. In Postmodernism, since there is no God, then death is only language. Death is not mentioned. In Islamic Theism, a person will either go to paradise or hell. The fifth question is Why is it possible to know anything at all? In Christian Theism, God gave us the ability to learn about the world and about Him. In Deism, it says that we have the ability in us to learn about the world and about God. In Naturalism, it believes the same as Deism. In Nihilism, nothing exists. In Existentialism, it believes a person must make the value in what it observes. In Naturalism, people learn things when they come into full consciousness. In Eastern religions, the only thing that is valuable is what is Oneness. In New Age religions, things appear or disappear when a person comes into full consciousness. In Postmodernism, reality is hidden from people. In Islamic Theism, it believes that Allah has given people the ability to learn things about their world. The sixth question is How do we know what is right or wrong? In Christian Theism, In Deism, In Naturalism, In Nihilism, In Existentialism, In Naturalism, In Eastern religions, In New Age religions, In Postmodernism, In Islamic Theism, The seventh question is What is the meaning of human history? In Christian Theism, In Deism, In Naturalism, In Nihilism, In Existentialism, In Naturalism, In Eastern religions, In New Age religions, In Postmodernism, In Islamic Theism, Microeconomics: Indifference Curve, Oligopoly Game Theory Microeconomics: Indifference Curve, Oligopoly Game Theory Introduction: Microeconomics aims to cover every aspects of our economic life. This report will discuss, evaluate and assess the usefulness and limitations of microeconomic theories in reaching that aim. Microeconomics is The study of choices that individuals make and the way these choices will interact in given markets (Parkin et al. 2012, p.2) or put more simply, microeconomics is the allocation of scarce resources. There are a number of objectives of microeconomics, the foremost being; Equity, Efficiency, Growth and Stability. This report will examine the commonly used theories of; Indifference analysis, Game Theory and the market structure of Oligopoly; analysing the benefits and drawbacks and how they are applied in the real world. Indifference Curve Analysis: To answer questions about individual decision making indifference curve analysis is applied. Before looking at this model it is necessary to assume that the individual satisfies the four axioms of rational preference formulated by Savage (1954). These are; completeness, more is better, transitivity and convexity. Sugden (1991 p.761) describes these as Preferences over acts, where acts are made up of consequences. A rational consumer will of course spend their money on the mix of products that give them most pleasure (Read 2007, p.45). However this will vary for each consumer, because each consumer will have different preferences. The consumer is constrained financially by their exogenous income to only be able to purchase bundles of goods X and Y on or below their budget line. This line does not always have to be straight, and in everyday applications it often is not. This is true with perfect compliments such as right and left shoes, the budget constraint will be stepped because a consumer will not gain much util (benefit) from having significantly more right shoes than left. An indifference curve is a graph showing a combination of two different goods that give the consumer equal satisfaction. There are four main properties of an indifference curve; it is ubiquitous, downward sloping, cannot cross and cannot become less steep. The marginal rate of substitution is the rate at which the consu mer is willing to exchange one bundle, for another along the indifference curve (this is equal to the value of the slope). Diminishing marginal rate of substitution explains why the line is curved as seen in figure 1 (Perloff, 2012). The consumer will take any allocation of resources along each indifference curve (I1, I2, I3). Their utility is optimal where the indifference curve meets the budget constraint. It can be observed that I2 is tangent to the budget constraint at point e therefore that is the rational and optimal choice, although I1 does also intersect part of the budget constraint (points a and c), the equilibrium of goods will be less desirable. Therefore that leaves I2 as the rational choice. However indifference curve analysis does not take into account the consumers preference to save instead of spend. This could cause point d to be the most desirable option. An application of Indifference curve analysis is the use of the Edgeworth box; TheEdgeworth boxis a traditional visualization of the benefits potentially available from trade. When both parties have utilised the benefit that they can receive this is called Pareto optimality. If two consumers (A and B) have fixed amounts of two products (X and Y) they must find a way to trade these goods that benefits both of them without making the other worse off. This can be solved by using their preference maps to construct an Edgeworth box diagram. Figure 2 (Perloff, 2012) shows the indifference curves of the two consumers (Jane and Denise) are tangent at a number of points. If the consumers originally plan on commencing trade at point e this will give Jane 30W and 20C and Denise 20W and 60C, Hence by using IJ2 and ID2 this is more beneficial to both parties due to there being greater overall bundles in addition to a greater combination of products. This then follows both the convexity and the more is better axioms of consumer preference. A contract curve is drawn through all of the Pareto optimal points of trade, which shows the various positions of exchange of products that equalise the marginal rates of substitution of the two exchangers. One particular drawback is that indifference curves usually only focuses on two goods, whereas in real terms it would be very rare that there are only two options of what to spend income on. Although it is possible to create an indifference map that takes into account three goods this is the furthest that the model can progress. There is also no scope for risk, uncertainty, or other factors that could influence a consumers preference map, this is because this form of analysis sticks rigidly to the assumption of Ceteris Paribus. Indifference curve analysis relies upon a consumer behaving rationally, however it is quite possible for a consumer, or anyone, not to behave in a rational way. Hume (1740) argued that reason alone was not a motive to act rationally, and that passion and impulse were of more importance in decision making. Game Theory: Perhaps one of the most discussed theories in microeconomics is that of Game Theory. Perloff, (2012, p.505) defines game theory as formally describing games and predicts their outcome conditional on the rules of the game, the information that players have, and other factors. There are certain factors that must be present for a game to exist. There must be players, strategies, orders of moves (time) and payoffs or rewards for each outcome. Providing that a player behaves rationally, we can assume they will follow a dominant strategy. This is a strategy that gives the player the best final outcome in comparison to all other potential strategies. The prisoner’s dilemma is a paradox in decision analysis where two parties end up worse off by pursuing self-interest. Furthermore it shows how if all parties in a game apply a dominant strategy there will be no real winner. Tucker (1952)formalized the game as we know it today with prison sentence rewards and named it prisoners dilemma It can be seen in figure 3 (Kane, 2013) The prisoners dilemma is set up so that both parties choose to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant; this is achieved by opting to confess. Following a logical thought process to help themselves, both participants are consequently worse off than if they had cooperated and trusted each other. Evidently, receiving confessions from both players is the Nash equilibrium (where each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has any advantage by changing their own strategy).It is therefore also the Pareto optimal point. This game can be expanded , giving the players 3 or more strategies each. Although this makes the game more difficult it can be solved using the method of iterated elimination of dominated strategies. This means that when a player notices that a possible strategy is strictly dominated by another strategy (all options of other strategy give a better outcome) then the strategy will not be considered. The prisoner’s dilemma is summarised well by Matt Ridley, â€Å"broadly speaking any situation in which you are tempted to do something, but know it would be a great mistake if everybody did the same thing, is likely to be a prisoner’s dilemma† (1996, p.55). A particularly fascinating application of the prisoner’s dilemma was its use in the cold war. Simplifying research by Cobb (2012). The two players (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) had to choose whether or not to build nuclear weapons. If neither chose to do so, valuable money, time and potentially lives would be saved. All players would be considerably better off if both avoided building nuclear weapons. However if one side built weapons and the other did not then that player would have a huge advantage. Therefore the only rational choice is for both sides to build nuclear weaponry. This puts both players on an equal level. However both are now financially worse off than when they started. Although it could be argued that the application of game theory has saved the world from nuclear war. Steiner and Schelling (1960, p.210) studied a similar model and came to the conclusion that world peace would be the most plausible solution. As shown in the film A Beautiful Mind (2002), the prisoner’s dilemma and Nash Equilibrium challenge Adam Smith’s (1776) marketplace model, which implies that the pursuit of self-interest results in collective benefit. One can observe many political disputes as partially flowing from disagreement regarding which model is more appropriate in a particular situation. For example when a firm or person is operating in a market with many available players, the option to cheat (confess) will not be taken as it would tarnish a firms reputation. This point is made well by Tullock (1985) and essentially implies that if you do not choose to cooperate in the short term, you may not have anyone to cooperate with in the long term. Game theorists have the assumption that players have perfect knowledge of both their own and opponents payoffs. When applied to the real world in more complicated applications this is often not true. It is often not possible to discover an outcome until the game has been played. Traditional game theory does include the factor that humans are intelligent and will often change their strategy when a game is played multiple times. It is assumed that players of a game will always apply a dominant strategy, however, this may not occur if players know each other or know that they will later come into contact with each other. Oligopoly: An Oligopoly is a common form of market structure with limited competition, in which a market is shared by a small number of producers or sellers whereas a duopoly only has two dominant firms. Many of the models used when analysing this market structure focus on duopolies for simplicity reasons. There have been a number of contrasting models for an oligopolistic market, arguably the three most important, and the three that this report will focus on, are the Cournot model, Stackelberg model and Bertrand model. In the Cournot model each firm assumes that rivals will continue producing at their current output levels. Each firm has the assumption that its competitors production levels are fixed, and will not be effected by their own production levels. This was developed by Antoine A. Cournot (1838). Each firm has a best response possible for every situation, this is the reaction function and is shown by (Perloff 2012) in figure 4. The best response curves show which output a firm will pick to maximise profit following its belief of its rivals output, Cournot equilibrium is found where the best response curves intersect. In contrast to this, the Stackelberg model assumes that firms do not decide on output simultaneously, instead, there is a price leader and a price follower. Henceforth, backwards induction is used to find the equilibrium. Cournot’s model is a simultaneous game, whereas Stackelberg’s is a sequential game. It can be seen from diagram 4 below that in the Cournot mod el, output for the two firms will be the same, however, output in the Stackelberg model is higher for the leader and lower for the price taker. If the firms are price takers then they will produce where demand equals to marginal cost. Within the Bertrand model each firm assumes that rivals will continue charging their current prices, the model was created by Bertrand (1883) in a review of Cournots model. Bertrands argument is that firms will choose the price to set rather than quantities, and that price should equal marginal cost. One problem with this model is that it assumes that consumers will always buy the lowest price product; which does not take into account factors such as product differentiation, location and the cost to the consumer of obtaining market information. The emergence of cartels is fairly common in oligopolies. This can have a negative effect on the consumer. A cartel is an agreement between competing firms to control prices and output. A cartel will form if the incumbent firms in the industry believe they can formulate higher profits by colluding together. If two firms collude, they could operate as a monopoly, therefore producing less and charging a higher price. Following Stigler (1964) many economists now accept that collusion is not a viable option in the long term as each firm has the incentive to cheat. This could be achieved by raising either price or quantity. Although cartels are illegal in most countries this has not stopped them forming. Research from Levenstein and Suslow (2006, p43-95) showed that although cartels are often successful in raising prices in the short term, most break up before five years. This is because when there is an incentive to cheat (and get away with it), most firms will take that opportunity. As shown in the recent failed cartel within the US airline industry involving Qantas (BBC 2007) In disparity to this however, an oligopolistic market does not necessarily mean that the firms will collude. Coca cola and Pepsi have a duopoly of their market, yet they are fiercely competitive and are forced to spend vast amounts each year on advertising. This level of competitiveness drives down prices through price wars, causes firms to differentiate products, and encourages innovation. Ultimately all of this is good news for the consumer. Another interesting example of an oligopolistic market is the current UK petrol station industry. Although the price of oil has fallen dramatically in the previous year, the firms inside the market are unwilling to drop their prices to match the fall in costs. This is because of price rigidity and collusion, if one firm dropped the price of petrol then all other incumbent firms would follow the price drop. This would consequently reduce profit for all firms in the industry. This shows how oligopolies can often have a negative effect for consumers. Conclusion: In conclusion the biggest problem in the application of microeconomics is the principle that consumers will always behave rationally, as previously noted, rationality is hard to define. In addition to this microeconomic theories are based on the static assumption of Ceteris Paribus which means Other things being equal. This assumption is unrealistic, the way we think and act are constantly changing, decisions can vary from day to day in response to to many different factors. Many of the microeconomic models do not go into the complexity needed to completely analyse our everyday behaviour. For example indifference curve analysis is limited to two or three products and some of the theories behind oligopolies can only be used for duopolies. However this does not make these models obsolete by any means. For the aforementioned reasons, there is no doubt that microeconomics can, if applied correctly, cover aspects of our everyday lives and give us a detailed insight into how and why we act as we do. However, this being said, microeconomic theories should only be used as one of many tools to help aid our knowledge of the economic world. The study of Microeconomic theory helps in achieving the correct allocation of resources, commodities and output mix for the maximization of the social welfare. APPENDIX Figure 1 : Consumer Maximisation (Perloff 2012, p.115) Figure 2: Edgeworth Box and Contract Curve (Perloff 2012, p.349) Figure 3: The Prisoners Dilemma (Kane 2013.) Figure 4: Duopoly Equilibrium (Perloff 2012, p.487) Bibliography A Beautiful Mind, 2002. Film. A Beautiful Mind (2001). Available from: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268978/ [Accessed 27 Nov 2014]. BBC, 2007. Qantas admits cargo price fixing [online]. BBC Business. 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